This article is a continuation of the Series on Linux Device Drivers and carries the discussion on Linux device drivers and their implementation. The aim of this series is to provide easy and practical examples that anyone can understand. This is the Atomic variable in Linux Device Driver (atomic operations) – Linux Device Driver Tutorial Part 30.
You can also read, Kernel thread, File operations, Sysfs, Procfs, Workqueue, Completion, Softirq, and threaded IRQ in the Linux device driver.
Atomic variables in Linux Device Driver
Prerequisites
In the below mentioned posts, we are using spinlock and mutex for synchronization. I would recommend you to explore that by using the below link.
- Mutex Tutorial in Linux Device Driver
- Spinlock in Linux Device Driver – Part 1
- Spinlock in Linux Device Driver – Part 2
Introduction
Before looking into atomic variables, we will see one example.
I have one integer or long variable named etx_global_variable which is shared between two threads. Two threads are just incrementing the variable like below.
Thread 1:
etx_global_variable++; //Accessing the variable
Thread 2:
etx_global_variable++; //Accessing the variable
Now we will see how it is incrementing internally in each instruction when both threads are running concurrently. Assume the initial value of etx_global_variable is 0.
| Thread 1 | Thread 2 |
get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (0) |
get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (0) |
increment etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
— |
| — | increment etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (1) |
— |
| — | write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (1) |
Now the value of etx_global_variable is 1 after the two threads are processed. Are we expecting the same value which is 1? Nope. We are expecting the value of etx_global_variable should be 2. It is not running as expected because the global variable is shared between two concurrent threads. So we need to implement synchronization because both the threads are accessing (writing/reading) the variable. We can implement synchronization like below using locks.
Thread 1:
lock(); //spinlock or mutex etx_global_variable++; //Accessing the variable unlock();
Thread 2:
lock(); //spinlock or mutex etx_global_variable++; //Accessing the variable unlock();
After this synchronization, we will see how it is incrementing internally when both threads are running concurrently. Assume the initial value of etx_global_variable is 0.
| Thread 1 | Thread 2 |
| lock() | — |
get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (0) |
lock() (it will be stuck here because the lock is already taken by thread 1) |
increment etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
— |
write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (1) |
— |
| unlock() | — |
| — | get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (1) |
| — | increment etx_global_variable (1 -> 2) |
| — | write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (2) |
| — | unlock() |
This will be the one possibility that can happen. Another possibility is mentioned below.
| Thread 1 | Thread 2 |
| — | lock() |
| lock() (it will be stuck here because the lock is already taken by thread 2) | get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (0) |
| — | increment etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
| — | write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (1) |
| — | unlock() |
get the value of etx_global_variable from memory (1) |
— |
increment etx_global_variable (1 -> 2) |
— |
write back the etx_global_variable value to memory (2) |
— |
| unlock() | — |
Great. That’s all. Now we are getting 2 in the two methods mentioned above. But has anyone thought anytime that, why these things are required for a single variable? Why don’t we have an alternate method for a single variable? Yes, obviously we have an alternate mechanism for integer and long variables. That is the atomic operation. If you use mutex/spinlock for just a single variable, it will add overhead. In this tutorial, we gonna see the atomic variable, atomic operation, and its usage.
atomic variables in Linux
The read, write and arithmetic operations on the atomic variables will be done in one instruction without interruption.
So, again we will take the same example mentioned above to explain the atomic variable operations. When we use the atomic method, that will work like the below.
| Thread 1 | Thread 2 |
get, increment and store etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
— |
| — | get, increment and store etx_global_variable (1 -> 2) |
and another possibility will be,
| Thread 1 | Thread 2 |
| — | get, increment and store etx_global_variable (0 -> 1) |
get, increment and store etx_global_variable (1 -> 2) |
— |
So the extra locking mechanism is not required when we are using atomic variables since the operation is happening in one machine instruction.
An atomic_t holds an int value and atomic64_t holds the long value on all supported architectures.
In Linux Kernel Version 2.6, the atomic variable has defined below.
typedef struct {
volatile int counter;
} atomic_t;
#ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
typedef struct {
volatile long counter;
} atomic64_t;
#endif
Then later, they have removed volatile and defined as below.
typedef struct {
int counter;
} atomic_t;
#ifdef CONFIG_64BIT
typedef struct {
long counter;
} atomic64_t;
#endif
You can read here why they have removed volatile.
Types of atomic variables
Two different atomic variables are there.
- Atomic variables that operate on Integers
- Atomic variables that operate on Individual Bits
Atomic Integer Operations
When we are doing atomic operations, that variable should be created using atomic_t or atomic64_t. So we have separate special functions for reading, writing, and arithmetic operations, and those are explained below.
The declarations are needed to use the atomic integer operations are in <asm/atomic.h>. Some architectures provide additional methods that are unique to that architecture, but all architectures provide at least a minimum set of operations that are used throughout the kernel. When you write kernel code, you can ensure that these operations are correctly implemented on all architectures.
Creating atomic variables
atomic_t etx_global_variable; /* define etx_global_variable */ or atomic_t etx_global_variable = ATOMIC_INIT(0); /* define etx_global_variable and initialize it to zero */
Reading atomic variables
atomic_read
This function atomically reads the value of the given atomic variable.
int atomic_read(atomic_t *v);
where,
v – pointer of type atomic_t
Return: It returns the integer value.
Other operations on atomic variables
atomic_set
This function atomically sets the value to the atomic variable.
void atomic_set(atomic_t *v, int i);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
i – the value to be set to v
atomic_add
This function atomically adds value to the atomic variable.
void atomic_add(int i, atomic_t *v);
where,
i – the value to be added to v
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
atomic_sub
This function atomically subtracts the value from the atomic variable.
void atomic_sub(int i, atomic_t *v);
where,
i – the value to be subtracted from v
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
atomic_inc
This function atomically increments the value of the atomic variable by 1.
void atomic_inc (atomic_t *v);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
atomic_dec
This function atomically decrements the value of the atomic variable by 1.
void atomic_dec (atomic_t *v);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
atomic_sub_and_test
This function atomically subtracts the value from the atomic variable and test the result is zero or not.
void atomic_sub_and_test(int i, atomic_t *v);
where,
i – the value to be subtracted from v
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
Return: It returns true if the result is zero, or false for all other cases.
atomic_dec_and_test
This function atomically decrements the value of the atomic variable by 1 and test the result is zero or not.
void atomic_dec_and_test(atomic_t *v);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
Return: It returns true if the result is zero, or false for all other cases.
atomic_inc_and_test
This function atomically increments the value of the atomic variable by 1 and test the result is zero or not.
void atomic_inc_and_test(atomic_t *v);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
Return: It returns true if the result is zero, or false for all other cases.
atomic_add_negative
This function atomically adds the value to the atomic variable and test the result is negative or not.
void atomic_add_negative(int i, atomic_t *v);
where,
i – the value to be added to v
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
Return: It returns true if the result is negative, or false for all other cases.
atomic_add_return
This function atomically adds the value to the atomic variable and returns the value.
void atomic_add_return(int i, atomic_t *v);
where,
i – the value to be added to v
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
Return : It returns true if the result the value (i + v).
Like this, other functions are also there. Those are,
| Function | Description |
int atomic_sub_return(int i, atomic_t *v) |
Atomically subtract i from v and return the result |
int atomic_inc_return(int i, atomic_t *v) |
Atomically increments v by one and return the result |
int atomic_dec_return(int i, atomic_t *v) |
Atomically decrements v by one and return the result |
atomic_add_unless
This function atomically adds value to the atomic variable unless the number is a given value.
atomic_add_unless (atomic_t *v, int a, int u);
where,
v – the pointer of type atomic_t
a – the amount to add to v…
u – …unless v is equal to u.
Return: It returns non-zero if v was not u, and zero otherwise.
There is a 64-bit version also available. Unlike atomic_t, that will operate on 64 bits. This 64-bit version also has a similar function like above, the only change is we have to use 64.
Example
atomic64_t etx_global_variable = ATOMIC64_INIT(0); long atomic64_read(atomic64_t *v); void atomic64_set(atomic64_t *v, int i); void atomic64_add(int i, atomic64_t *v); void atomic64_sub(int i, atomic64_t *v); void atomic64_inc(atomic64_t *v); void atomic64_dec(atomic64_t *v); int atomic64_sub_and_test(int i, atomic64_t *v); int atomic64_add_negative(int i, atomic64_t *v); long atomic64_add_return(int i, atomic64_t *v); long atomic64_sub_return(int i, atomic64_t *v); long atomic64_inc_return(int i, atomic64_t *v); long atomic64_dec_return(int i, atomic64_t *v); int atomic64_dec_and_test(atomic64_t *v); int atomic64_inc_and_test(atomic64_t *v);
But all the operations are the same as atomic_t.
Atomic Bitwise Operations
Atomic_t is good when we are working on integer arithmetic. But when it comes to bitwise atomic operation, it doesn’t work well. So kernel offers separate functions to achieve that. Atomic bit operations are very fast. These functions are architecture-dependent and are declared in <asm/bitops.h>.
These bitwise functions operate on a generic pointer. So, atomic_t / atomic64_t is not required. So we can work with a pointer to whatever data we want.
The below functions are available for atomic bit operations.
| Function | Description |
void set_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically set the nr-th bit starting from addr |
void clear_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically clear the nr-th bit starting from addr |
void change_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically flip the value of the nr-th bit starting from addr |
int test_and_set_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically set the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int test_and_clear_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically clear the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int test_and_change_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically flip the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int test_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Atomically return the value of the nr-th bit starting from addr |
int find_first_zero_bit(unsigned long *addr, unsigned int size) |
Atomically returns the bit-number of the first zero bit, not the number of the byte containing a bit |
int find_first_bit(unsigned long *addr, unsigned int size) |
Atomically returns the bit-number of the first set bit, not the number of the byte containing a bit |
And also non-atomic bit operations also available. What is the use of that when we have atomic bit operations? When we have code that is already locked by mutex/spinlock then we can go for this non-atomic version. This might be faster in that case. The below functions are available for non-atomic bit operations.
| Function | Description |
void _set_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically set the nr-th bit starting from addr |
void _clear_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically clear the nr-th bit starting from addr |
void _change_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically flip the value of the nr-th bit starting from addr |
int _test_and_set_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically set the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int _test_and_clear_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically clear the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int _test_and_change_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically flip the nr-th bit starting from addr and return the previous value |
int _test_bit(int nr, void *addr) |
Non-atomically return the value of the nr-th bit starting from addr |
Atomic variable in Linux – Example Programming
In this program, we have two threads called thread_function1 and thread_function2. Both will be accessing the atomic variables.
Driver Source Code
[Get the source code from GitHub]
/***************************************************************************//**
* \file driver.c
*
* \details Simple Linux device driver (Atomic Variables)
*
* \Tested with Linux raspberrypi 5.10.27-v7l-embetronicx-custom+
*
*******************************************************************************/
#include <linux/kernel.h>
#include <linux/init.h>
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/kdev_t.h>
#include <linux/fs.h>
#include <linux/cdev.h>
#include <linux/device.h>
#include<linux/slab.h> //kmalloc()
#include<linux/uaccess.h> //copy_to/from_user()
#include <linux/kthread.h> //kernel threads
#include <linux/sched.h> //task_struct
#include <linux/delay.h>
#include <linux/err.h>
atomic_t etx_global_variable = ATOMIC_INIT(0); //Atomic integer variable
unsigned int etc_bit_check = 0;
dev_t dev = 0;
static struct class *dev_class;
static struct cdev etx_cdev;
static int __init etx_driver_init(void);
static void __exit etx_driver_exit(void);
static struct task_struct *etx_thread1;
static struct task_struct *etx_thread2;
/*************** Driver functions **********************/
static int etx_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file);
static int etx_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file);
static ssize_t etx_read(struct file *filp,
char __user *buf, size_t len,loff_t * off);
static ssize_t etx_write(struct file *filp,
const char *buf, size_t len, loff_t * off);
/******************************************************/
int thread_function1(void *pv);
int thread_function2(void *pv);
/*
** kernel thread function 2
*/
int thread_function1(void *pv)
{
unsigned int prev_value = 0;
while(!kthread_should_stop()) {
atomic_inc(&etx_global_variable);
prev_value = test_and_change_bit(1, (void*)&etc_bit_check);
pr_info("Function1 [value : %u] [bit:%u]\n", atomic_read(&etx_global_variable), prev_value);
msleep(1000);
}
return 0;
}
/*
** kernel thread function 2
*/
int thread_function2(void *pv)
{
unsigned int prev_value = 0;
while(!kthread_should_stop()) {
atomic_inc(&etx_global_variable);
prev_value = test_and_change_bit(1,(void*) &etc_bit_check);
pr_info("Function2 [value : %u] [bit:%u]\n", atomic_read(&etx_global_variable), prev_value);
msleep(1000);
}
return 0;
}
//File operation structure
static struct file_operations fops =
{
.owner = THIS_MODULE,
.read = etx_read,
.write = etx_write,
.open = etx_open,
.release = etx_release,
};
/*
** This function will be called when we open the Device file
*/
static int etx_open(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
{
pr_info("Device File Opened...!!!\n");
return 0;
}
/*
** This function will be called when we close the Device file
*/
static int etx_release(struct inode *inode, struct file *file)
{
pr_info("Device File Closed...!!!\n");
return 0;
}
/*
** This function will be called when we read the Device file
*/
static ssize_t etx_read(struct file *filp,
char __user *buf, size_t len, loff_t *off)
{
pr_info("Read function\n");
return 0;
}
/*
** This function will be called when we write the Device file
*/
static ssize_t etx_write(struct file *filp,
const char __user *buf, size_t len, loff_t *off)
{
pr_info("Write Function\n");
return len;
}
/*
** Module Init function
*/
static int __init etx_driver_init(void)
{
/*Allocating Major number*/
if((alloc_chrdev_region(&dev, 0, 1, "etx_Dev")) <0){
pr_info("Cannot allocate major number\n");
return -1;
}
pr_info("Major = %d Minor = %d \n",MAJOR(dev), MINOR(dev));
/*Creating cdev structure*/
cdev_init(&etx_cdev,&fops);
/*Adding character device to the system*/
if((cdev_add(&etx_cdev,dev,1)) < 0){
pr_info("Cannot add the device to the system\n");
goto r_class;
}
/*Creating struct class*/
if(IS_ERR(dev_class = class_create(THIS_MODULE,"etx_class"))){
pr_info("Cannot create the struct class\n");
goto r_class;
}
/*Creating device*/
if(IS_ERR(device_create(dev_class,NULL,dev,NULL,"etx_device"))){
pr_info("Cannot create the Device \n");
goto r_device;
}
/* Creating Thread 1 */
etx_thread1 = kthread_run(thread_function1,NULL,"eTx Thread1");
if(etx_thread1) {
pr_err("Kthread1 Created Successfully...\n");
} else {
pr_err("Cannot create kthread1\n");
goto r_device;
}
/* Creating Thread 2 */
etx_thread2 = kthread_run(thread_function2,NULL,"eTx Thread2");
if(etx_thread2) {
pr_err("Kthread2 Created Successfully...\n");
} else {
pr_err("Cannot create kthread2\n");
goto r_device;
}
pr_info("Device Driver Insert...Done!!!\n");
return 0;
r_device:
class_destroy(dev_class);
r_class:
unregister_chrdev_region(dev,1);
cdev_del(&etx_cdev);
return -1;
}
/*
** Module exit function
*/
static void __exit etx_driver_exit(void)
{
kthread_stop(etx_thread1);
kthread_stop(etx_thread2);
device_destroy(dev_class,dev);
class_destroy(dev_class);
cdev_del(&etx_cdev);
unregister_chrdev_region(dev, 1);
pr_info("Device Driver Remove...Done!!\n");
}
module_init(etx_driver_init);
module_exit(etx_driver_exit);
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
MODULE_AUTHOR("EmbeTronicX <[email protected]>");
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("A simple device driver - Atomic Variables");
MODULE_VERSION("1.27");
MakeFile
obj-m += driver.o KDIR = /lib/modules/$(shell uname -r)/build all: make -C $(KDIR) M=$(shell pwd) modules clean: make -C $(KDIR) M=$(shell pwd) clean
In our next tutorial, we can discuss Seqlock.
Please find the other Linux device driver tutorials here.
You can also read the below tutorials.
Embedded Software | Firmware | Linux Devic Deriver | RTOS
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